Defining Pacific Island Agroforestry

Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands is fundamentally a traditional practice that integrates trees with crops and/or animals. This integration is increasingly recognized for its capacity to combine sustained agricultural production and economic development with ecological conservation and land improvement. It represents an intentionally designed land-use management system that leverages the interactive benefits derived from combining woody perennials with other agricultural components. These systems are highly variable, adapting to both rural and urban settings, and serve dual purposes of subsistence and cash-crop production.

The characterization of agroforestry as an "intentionally designed" system highlights a critical duality. Traditional practices have evolved over generations, embodying a profound understanding of local ecosystems. Concurrently, modern applications involve deliberate planning to optimize specific benefits, such as timber production. Effective implementation necessitates a synergistic approach that respectfully bridges time-tested traditional wisdom with contemporary scientific methodologies.

Historical Context and Evolution

Pacific Island agroforestry systems developed on isolated islands over millennia as exemplary models of sustainability. Traditionally, these were integrated production systems where forestry, agriculture, housing, health, and trade functioned as interconnected components. However, colonization and industrial agriculture disrupted these systems, leading to a decline in agroforestry and leaving large areas fallow. This historical disruption has created a profound paradox: once-sustainable lands are now degraded, yet they hold the potential for restoration through Indigenous-informed agroforestry - revitalizing the "ridge to reef" concept.

Prevalent Agroforestry Systems for Timber Production

Multi-strata Agroforests (Homegardens & Food Forests)

Characterized by a multi-story structure incorporating multipurpose species like breadfruit, coconuts, and bananas. In Palau, locally known as chereomel, these include timber trees alongside mango and Terminalia catappa. Urban "dooryard" gardens also integrate food trees that serve as timber sources, such as Pandanus species on atolls. The multifunctionality of these systems prioritizes holistic community well-being over single-product maximization.

Silvopasture Systems (Trees with Livestock)

Silvopasture explicitly combines trees with forage and livestock production. Trees provide essential shade and shelter, which can increase forage quality. While promoted in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji, widespread viability is often challenged by high fencing costs. Scaling this system requires addressing economic hurdles through subsidies or emphasizing non-monetary benefits like carbon sequestration.

Woodlots and Farm Forestry

Small plantations cultivated for timber or fuelwood, integrated into broader farm systems. Historical examples include Fiji’s Pinus caribaea woodlots. Success in farm forestry requires long-term investment and a farmer-centric approach that provides diversified, early benefits to ensure adoption by smallholders.

Other Integrated Practices

Windbreaks: Single or multiple rows to protect agricultural fields while providing timber and fodder.

Live Fences: Natural barriers that also provide fruit or timber.

Improved Fallow: Planting fast-growing trees on temporary fallow land to enhance soil fertility.

Contour Hedgerows: Trees planted along slope contours to control erosion.

Understory Cropping: Cultivating crops beneath the canopy of existing forestry plantations.

Detailed Characteristics of Pacific Island Agroforestry Types for Timber Production

Agroforestry in Pacific Islands and its Timber Potential

Defining Pacific Island Agroforestry

Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands is fundamentally a traditional practice that integrates trees with crops and/or animals. This integration is increasingly recognized for its capacity to combine sustained agricultural production and economic development with ecological conservation and land improvement. It represents an intentionally designed land-use management system that leverages the interactive benefits derived from combining woody perennials with other agricultural components. These systems are highly variable, adapting to both rural and urban settings, and serve dual purposes of subsistence and cash-crop production. 

The characterization of agroforestry as an "intentionally designed" system, while simultaneously acknowledged as a "traditional practice," highlights a critical duality in its nature. Traditional Pacific Island agroforestry practices have evolved over generations, embodying a profound understanding of local ecosystems and community needs. Concurrently, modern applications of agroforestry increasingly involve deliberate planning and the integration of scientific principles to optimize specific benefits, such as timber production. This inherent duality implies that effective implementation and scaling of timber agroforestry in the Pacific Islands necessitates a synergistic approach. This approach must respectfully bridge time-tested traditional wisdom with contemporary scientific understanding and planning methodologies to ensure both ecological integrity and economic viability.

Historical Context and Evolution of Systems

Pacific Island agroforestry systems, having developed on isolated islands over centuries or millennia, stand as exemplary models of sustainability. Traditionally, these were integrated production systems where forestry, agriculture, housing, health, nutrition, education, and trade were not compartmentalized. Instead, they functioned as interconnected components adapted to the environmental, economic, and cultural needs of the communities. These systems were built upon the foundational practice of protecting and planting trees to ensure self-sufficiency and overall well-being.

However, the advent of colonization, land privatization, and the introduction of industrial agriculture significantly disrupted these intricate traditional systems. This disruption led to a major decline in agroforestry practices during and after the colonial period. Consequently, large areas of agricultural land in Hawaiʻi, for instance, have been left fallow and unmanaged, posing substantial risks such as elevated erosion, invasive species proliferation, and increased wildfire susceptibility. The historical disruption of these traditional, integrated agroforestry systems by colonial practices and industrial agriculture has created a profound paradox. The very lands that were once models of sustainability are now degraded, yet they simultaneously hold the potential for ecological and social restoration through Indigenous-informed agroforestry. This situation underscores that the path to sustainable timber production in the Pacific Islands is not merely about introducing new, external techniques. Instead, it necessitates a restorative approach that actively re-engages with and revitalizes Indigenous-informed agroforestry, recognizing that such systems can re-establish ecological balance and cultural connection, as exemplified by the "ridge to reef" concept.

Significance of Timber Production within Agroforestry

Timber production constitutes a significant and integral component of Pacific Island agroforestry, offering substantial economic benefits, providing essential construction materials, and contributing directly to regional self-sufficiency. Within specific agroforestry configurations, such as silvopasture systems, trees are managed not only for timber but also to provide crucial shade and shelter for livestock. Both indigenous and introduced timber species serve as important sources of income for various countries across the region.

Furthermore, by enabling farmers to produce fuelwood, timber, and building poles directly on their land, agroforestry can significantly reduce the demand on natural forests, thereby alleviating pressure for forest conversion into agricultural land. Timber production, when integrated within a comprehensive agroforestry framework, offers a multifaceted solution that effectively addresses both economic development imperatives and critical environmental conservation goals. The consistent emphasis on timber as a valuable product and source of income, coupled with agroforestry's broader ecological benefits such as land improvement and climate resilience, illustrates a synergistic relationship. This relationship allows economic gains to be pursued in a manner that actively supports, rather than degrades, the environment. This holistic approach contributes significantly to the overall resilience of island nations, particularly in the face of pressing challenges like climate change and food insecurity.   

Prevalent Agroforestry Systems for Timber Production

Multi-strata Agroforests (e.g., Homegardens, Food Forests)

Multi-strata agroforests represent the most common traditional agroforestry type in the Pacific Islands, characterized by a multi-story, tree-based structure that incorporates a wide array of highly productive multipurpose species. Key examples of crops and trees found within these systems include breadfruit, coconuts, bananas, and various taro species. In Palau, these mixed forests, locally known as chereomel, specifically include timber trees alongside coconuts, mango, breadfruit, Terminalia catappa, and Inocarpus edulis. Beyond timber, these agroforests also serve as vital sources of traditional medicines, culturally significant products, building materials, and firewood. 

Urban agroforestry, particularly "dooryard" agroforestry, is a ubiquitous feature across Pacific island urban landscapes. These urban gardens integrate a wide range of food trees and non-food plants, with many of these trees also serving as sources of timber. For instance, 

Pandanus species are highlighted as a very important staple food plant on atolls, while also providing timber for house building. The inherent multi-functionality of traditional multi-strata agroforests, where timber is one of many outputs, suggests a robust model for integrated resource management that prioritizes holistic community well-being over single-product maximization. These systems consistently demonstrate their capacity to provide a diverse array of benefits, including food, medicine, and building materials, thereby contrasting with the singular focus of monocultural timber plantations. The implication is that for timber production to be truly sustainable and culturally appropriate in the Pacific, it should ideally be embedded within broader, diverse agroforestry systems that meet multiple community needs. This approach fosters resilience by diversifying outputs and reducing reliance on external inputs, aligning with the traditional, integrated approach to land use. 

Silvopasture Systems (Trees with Livestock)

Silvopasture is a distinct form of agroforestry that explicitly combines trees with forage and livestock production. Within these systems, trees are typically managed for timber, while simultaneously providing essential shade and shelter for livestock, which can, in some cases, lead to increased forage production and quality. This practice is recognized as one of the eight key Pacific Island agroforestry practices that integrate trees into farm systems.

Silvopasture has been actively promoted in various Pacific Island nations, including Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji. The benefits extend beyond timber and livestock products, as cattle can effectively control weeds, reduce fire danger, and provide shade in open grasslands. While silvopasture offers clear synergistic benefits for timber and livestock production, its widespread economic viability can be significantly challenged by practical constraints such as high fencing costs. Historical accounts indicate that the high cost of fencing has made long-term, extensive grazing uneconomic for entities like the Fiji Pine Commission and often unprofitable for cattle owners. This practical barrier reveals a direct economic disincentive that can hinder the broader adoption of an otherwise ecologically beneficial system. Therefore, for successful scaling of silvopasture for timber in the Pacific, it is imperative to address these economic challenges, perhaps through targeted subsidies, the development of community-managed fencing solutions, or by emphasizing and monetizing other non-monetary benefits such as carbon sequestration or improved soil health.

Woodlots and Farm Forestry

Woodlots are defined as small plantations of trees cultivated primarily for timber, fuelwood, or other wood products. These are designed to be integrated into broader farm systems, serving as a direct source of income and essential materials for landowners. A notable historical example comes from Fiji, where Pinus caribaea woodlots, typically ranging from 0.4 to 2 hectares, were promoted on steeper, non-cane agricultural areas of smallholder sugar-cane farms. The primary objectives of these woodlots were to control erosion and provide on-farm supplies of timber and fuel wood. 

Farm forestry, as a broader concept, involves a significant, long-term investment of land, labor, and resources. Consequently, it is crucial for landowners to meticulously consider the economic prospects of such practices before committing to investment. The historical discontinuation of smallholder woodlot programs, such as the Pinus caribaea initiative in Fiji, despite their intended benefits for erosion control and on-farm timber supply, points to a critical disconnect between top-down policy promotion and practical, sustainable implementation at the smallholder level. The lack of institutional support for intercropping or other agroforestry activities within these pine plantations further contributed to their limited success. This outcome suggests that the program's design or implementation did not adequately align with the realities, motivations, or immediate needs of smallholders, possibly due to the long maturity periods required for timber and the absence of immediate or short-term returns. This underscores that future timber agroforestry programs must adopt a more farmer-centric approach, providing diversified and earlier benefits to ensure long-term adoption and success.   

Other Integrated Practices (e.g., Windbreaks, Live Fences, Improved Fallow)

Beyond multi-strata systems, silvopasture, and woodlots, several other integrated agroforestry practices contribute to timber production in the Pacific Islands.

Windbreaks consist of single or multiple rows of trees and shrubs strategically planted to reduce wind speed and protect agricultural fields, crops, livestock, or buildings. Beyond their primary protective function, windbreaks are designed to be multipurpose, capable of providing timber, fruit/nut production, mulch/fodder, or wildlife habitat. For optimal effectiveness, a windbreak should ideally include at least two rows, with trees planted closely within rows (3-4m for medium trees, 2-3m for smaller trees, and up to 6m for larger trees) and arranged in staggered rows to enhance their barrier function.   

Live Fences are innovative fencing solutions constructed from living trees or shrubs, commonly used to delineate boundaries, contain livestock, or serve as natural barriers. Importantly, they can also provide additional products such as fruit or timber. 

Improved Fallow involves the deliberate planting of fast-growing, often nitrogen-fixing, trees or shrubs on agricultural land that is temporarily taken out of cultivation. The primary aim is to enhance soil fertility and suppress weed growth, thereby preparing the land for future crop cycles. These can also be "economically enriched fallows," where the selected trees are valued for their potential to generate cash or provide subsistence products. 

Contour Hedgerows are rows of trees or shrubs meticulously planted along the contours of a slope. Their main purpose is to effectively control soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and provide other benefits such as fodder or fuelwood.

Sequential Cropping Systems refer to agricultural systems where different crops are cultivated in a specific sequence on the same parcel of land. These systems often incorporate trees or tree products into the rotation to maintain and enhance soil health and overall productivity. 

Understory Cropping involves the cultivation of crops beneath the canopy of existing trees, such as those in forestry plantations, orchards, or other tree-based systems. Planning considerations for this practice include integrating understory crops effectively with the overhead tree canopy, with examples of successful intercropping systems in tropical regions and lists of suitable species.

The consistent emphasis on "multipurpose" functions across these diverse agroforestry practices indicates a fundamental principle of resource optimization in Pacific Island contexts, where timber is often a co-benefit rather than the sole driver of land use. These systems repeatedly demonstrate their capacity to provide timber alongside other critical benefits such as fodder, fruit, soil improvement, and erosion control. This contrasts with the singular focus of monocultural timber plantations. The implication is that for timber production to be widely adopted and sustainable in the Pacific, it must seamlessly integrate into existing farming systems and contribute diverse benefits that enhance overall farm resilience and livelihood security. This approach aligns with the traditional holistic view of land management and offers a more robust and adaptable model than specialized, single-product forestry.

Key Timber Species: Characteristics and Suitability for Agroforestry

Indigenous Timber Species

Traditional agroforestry systems across the Pacific Islands have historically relied upon and continue to utilize a wide range of indigenous species for timber production. 

Calophyllum inophyllum (Kamani/Bintangor/Pencil Cedar) is explicitly mentioned as a timber source within traditional Hawaiian and other U.S.-affiliated Pacific Island agroforests. Its wood is characterized as moderately hard to hard, light yellowish to light red, heavy, durable, and possessing fair toughness and strength, with a specific gravity ranging from 0.7 to 0.85. It is moderately easy to work and polishes well. However, it is also identified as a high-risk species from natural forests in the Solomon Islands, indicating concerns regarding its sustainable harvesting.

Agathis macrophylla (Pacific Kauri/Fijian Kauri) is recognized as one of the largest and fastest-growing species within its genus, capable of reaching heights of 40 meters and diameters of 3 meters. It holds significant importance in forestry and is native to Fiji, Vanuatu, and the Santa Cruz Islands. The wood is typically cream to gold in color, with mature heartwood developing a lustrous brown hue, and has an approximate dry density of 540 kg/m³. It is highly valued in the timber industry, particularly as a surface veneer, and is commonly used for house construction, canoe carving, and totem pole construction. Kauri's moderate density, straight, and consistent grain contribute to its good workability, resulting in clear and knot-less timber with minimal wastage due to the tree's large size. However, it is rated as non-durable to perishable regarding decay resistance and can easily develop blue stain if not dried properly. Like Intsia bijuga, it cannot be exported as raw logs from the Solomon Islands.

Acacia koa (Koa) is the premier Hawaiian timber, highly valued for its unique grain, varied color, and excellent workability. It seasons well without serious warping or splitting, with curly-grained wood being particularly preferred. Its color spectrum ranges from a subtle yellow to a striking dark red-purple, and its specific gravity averages 0.40, potentially reaching as high as 0.65 for curly-grained wood. Koa is primarily used for fine furniture, cabinetry, interior work, and woodcrafts. Its growth is limited to higher elevations, generally above 2,500 feet.

Vitex cofassus (Vasa/New Guinea Teak) is a highly sought-after and useful hardwood, exported in substantial amounts from Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, primarily to Japan. Its wood is exceptionally strong and durable, with a density ranging from 700 to 800 kg/m³. It is utilized for house construction, boats, domestic utensils like bowls and platters, and is highly regarded for stringers, keelsons, and planking in Papua New Guinea. It is also identified as a high-risk species in the Solomon Islands. 

Pandanus spp. are specifically noted for their use as timber for house building on atolls.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) wood is very light (density 505-645 kg/m³ at 15% mc), durable, and soft, yet remarkably resistant, particularly to termites and marine worms. Traditionally, it was widely used for the construction of houses and canoes.

Pometia pinnata (Taun/Akwa) produces a heartwood that ranges from light to dark red, or medium dark red-brown, sometimes with purplish hues and dark-colored ribbons on radial and tangential sections. Its density is between 500 and 990 kg/m³. It is a major species harvested in rainforests  and is listed as a high-risk species in the Solomon Islands.

Santalum ellipticum (Sandalwood) is primarily used for carving religious statues and objects, handicrafts, art pieces, decorative furniture, musical instruments, and canoe construction. Vanuatu sandalwood (Santalum austrocaledonicum) is specifically highlighted as a high-value, low-volume product.

The dual classification of several indigenous species (e.g., Intsia bijuga, Vitex cofassus, Pometia pinnata, Calophyllum spp.) as both "highly prized" timber and "high-risk" or "restricted" species highlights a critical tension between commercial exploitation and conservation. This tension is often exacerbated by unsustainable harvesting practices and weak governance. The consistent description of these species as highly valued for their timber, juxtaposed with their designation as high-risk due to illegal logging and trade, reveals a clear causal relationship. The high commercial value, combined with insufficient regulatory oversight and market pressures, leads to unsustainable exploitation that threatens the very resource base. This implies that for these indigenous species, timber production within agroforestry must prioritize strict sustainable management, robust monitoring, and potentially third-party certification  to mitigate illegality risks and ensure long-term viability, rather than solely focusing on maximizing yield. This also underscores the need for policies that support the protection and cultivation of native species.

Introduced Commercial Timber Species

Exotic timber species have been widely introduced and promoted in the Pacific Islands, serving as important sources of income and contributing to timber supply. 

Pinus caribaea (Caribbean Pine) accounts for over 50% of the total timber plantation area in the Pacific region. It is characterized by a fast growth rate, often exceeding 1 meter per year when young. The wood is moderately light to moderately heavy, soft to moderately hard, and moderately durable, though susceptible to marine borer and termite attacks. While resin content can clog tools, resin-soaked wood is valued for boat decking due to its high durability. However, its low timber density and other properties may render it unstable for structural work or furniture.

Pinus caribaea tolerates salt winds, making it suitable for coastal planting. Extensive plantations have been established in Fiji (over 50,000 ha), as well as in New Caledonia, Western Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Vanuatu.

Cordia alliodora (Laurel) is a significant hardwood species and has been the main commercial silvicultural species in Vanuatu, with over 1,000 hectares planted. It is a tall, thin deciduous tree, typically reaching 15-20 meters but capable of up to 40 meters, with smooth, clear brown/gray bark. It regenerates easily, primarily through wind-dispersed seeds , and is explicitly planted for timber. Its timber is versatile, used in sculptures, construction (interior and exterior), tool handles, carpentry, fine furniture, flooring, and boat building. However, it can be susceptible to root rot and may not perform well on all sites. A significant concern is its invasiveness in the Pacific Islands, where it can rapidly invade native forests and displace native species.

Eucalyptus deglupta (Mindanao Gum/Rainbow Eucalyptus) is ranked among the world's fastest-growing trees, a very large, fast-growing, broadleaved evergreen species. Mature individuals can reach up to 80 meters in height and 3 meters in diameter. Its bole is typically straight, cylindrical, and self-pruning. The primary use for plantation wood from short rotations (5-12 years) is for the production of strong sulfate pulp. It is also a source of hardwood timber. The tree is perhaps best known for its distinctive smooth, multi-colored bark that peels to reveal streaks of various hues. In Papua New Guinea, it has been successfully intercropped with cocoa and coffee. A challenge for silvopastoral systems is that its bark is palatable to cattle. 

Swietenia macrophylla (West Indian Mahogany/Big-leaf Mahogany) is a very large tree, capable of reaching heights of 30-40 meters, and in favorable conditions, up to 60 meters. Its trunk is straight, cylindrical, and often has a buttressed base. It is a moderately-fast growing species capable of producing sawn timber under a 30 to 40-year rotation. The wood density ranges from 485 to 840 kg/m³. Mahogany timber is highly valued for interior paneling, joinery work, furniture, plywood, and heavy construction. It is self-pruning, reducing the need for additional pruning. Plantations are often established at wide spacing (10x3m or 333 stems/ha) and rarely require thinning. The typical rotation age for timber is 30-35 years, with a final stocking rate of 150-250 stems/ha. It shows potential as an alternative timber species, with intercropping possible in its early years if grown with nurse species to mitigate pest problems. However, it has weed potential and may invade native forest communities, especially following disturbance.

Araucaria spp. have also been planted in Papua New Guinea for timber production. 

The widespread introduction and promotion of fast-growing exotic timber species, often for export, has created a significant tension between maximizing commercial timber yields and maintaining ecological integrity. This is particularly evident due to the invasiveness of some species and the historical tendency towards monocultural practices. The explicit statements that Cordia alliodora is "invasive in the Pacific Islands" and "displaces native species" , and that Swietenia macrophylla has "weed potential" and "may invade native forest communities" , demonstrate a direct causal link. The pursuit of rapid commercial returns from introduced species can inadvertently lead to significant ecological harm, particularly when implemented in monocultural plantations. This implies that future timber agroforestry development must prioritize rigorous risk assessment for invasiveness and, where exotics are used, implement stringent management protocols. Ideally, the focus should shift towards promoting diverse, native-species-rich systems to ensure long-term ecological sustainability alongside economic benefits.   

Detailed Timber Properties

The timber properties of various species exhibit significant variation, directly influencing their suitability for different end products and applications. 

Density of wood ranges widely, from very light, as seen in Breadfruit (505-645 kg/m³), to very heavy, exemplified by Acacia catechu (880-1000 kg/m³).

Durability against decay, insects, and marine borers varies considerably. For instance, Breadfruit wood is noted for its resistance to termites and marine worms , while Intsia bijuga demonstrates durability against dry-wood and subterranean termites. In contrast, Pinus caribaea is susceptible to marine borer and termite attacks, though its resistance increases with higher resin content.   

Agathis macrophylla is rated as non-durable to perishable regarding decay resistance.

Workability and Finishing properties are crucial for processing. Acacia koa is highly valued for its workability and ability to season well without serious warping or splitting.

Intsia bijuga is noted for its good workability and satisfactory gluing. 

Pinus caribaea generally works and finishes well with hand and machine tools, though resin can clog equipment.

Vitex cofassus is strong and durable but can be difficult to work due to irregular interlocked grain and rough texture, despite taking a good polish.

Agathis macrophylla's moderate density and consistent grain contribute to good workability, gluing, and finishing.

Appearance and Grain are important for aesthetic applications. Acacia koa heartwood is prized for its unique grain and varied color, ranging from subtle yellow to dark red-purple, with curly-grained wood being particularly sought after. 

Vitex cofassus has a beautiful brick-red heartwood used for decorative furniture.

Agathis macrophylla features a cream to gold color, with mature heartwood becoming a lustrous brown, and a straight, fine, even grain.

Specific Uses for timber are dictated by these properties. For solid wood products, large size, moderate to rapid growth, good form, and ease of pruning are desired, along with strength, stability, uniformity, and good seasoning/working/finishing properties.

Sheet products require very large size, good natural pruning, and rapid occlusion (few knots). For wood chips, pulp, and paper, rapid growth, straight stems, early culmination, and ease of growing are important, along with specific fiber length, light color, and low extractives. 

Posts and poles (roundwood) necessitate straight stems, strong apical dominance, few or thin branches (preferably self-pruning), little taper, and durability in contact with ground or water, as well as resistance to termites and borers.

Management Practices for Timber Production in Agroforestry

Silvicultural Techniques (Planting Density, Pruning, Thinning, Harvesting)

Effective silvicultural practices are crucial for optimizing timber production within Pacific Island agroforestry systems. The process typically begins with site selection and preparation, followed by species selection tailored to the specific environmental conditions and project goals. 

Planting techniques involve establishing the spacing of each tree, which can be done in lines for ease of management or randomly to mimic natural forest patterns. A standard plant spacing of 6 meters is often recommended for restoration, allowing ample space for tree growth. For windbreaks, optimal spacing for medium-sized trees is 3-4 meters, for smaller trees 2-3 meters, and for larger trees up to 6 meters, with staggered rows enhancing effectiveness. Canopy density in windbreaks should ideally be 50% to 80%. Initial site clearing, known as line-cutting, protects new trees from surrounding vegetation and provides access for care. Seedlings should be acclimatized to their new environment before planting, and care must be taken to protect roots during the process.  

Pruning is a key silvicultural practice aimed at improving timber quality by producing "clearwood," which is knot-free timber. This involves removing lower branches from plantation trees. Three main pruning methods are recognized:   

• Form pruning develops a strong, dominant central leader, crucial for species that tend to grow multi-forked stems, typically done in the tree's early years (ages 2-6).   

• Sail pruning (crown lightening) involves removing 2-3 branches to reduce wind resistance and thin heavy whorls.   

• Clear pruning aims to produce knot-free timber by removing all branches off the lower stem when the tree diameter is 10-18 cm. The goal is to restrict the size of the "knotty core" (the zone of inferior wood) to a minimum, allowing "clearwood" to form around it. Pruning should be frequent and light to avoid stunting growth, as severe pruning (removing >50% of active foliage) can negatively impact height growth. Proper cuts are essential to prevent bark tears and damage to the branch collar, ensuring minimal grain distortion and knot formation. Pruning can improve log quality for timber applications.  

Thinning is required in densely planted areas to remove smaller and lower-quality trees, allowing better trees to grow and improving the overall quality and growth of the stand. While thinning generally cannot increase the gross volume of production, it can boost net volume by harvesting trees that would otherwise die from suppression. For example, a stand planted with 2000 trees per hectare might only have 200 survive to maturity without thinning. 

Harvesting cycles and sustainability are critical considerations. Selective logging of indigenous forests is theoretically sustainable if logging cycles are long enough to allow regeneration. However, many Pacific Island countries are harvesting timber beyond sustainable levels or have allocated licenses at unsustainable extraction rates, leading to weak forest regeneration and degradation. For commercial timber species like Swietenia macrophylla, a rotation age of 30-35 years is typical, with a final stocking rate of 150-250 stems/ha. Fast-growing timber trees may have economic rotations as short as 12-15 years, while higher-value hardwoods might be left to grow for 30-50 years. The economic viability of longer rotations is also being explored, with some studies suggesting that extending rotations can increase long-term timber production and carbon storage.

Integrated Management for Multiple Benefits

Integrated management in Pacific Island agroforestry emphasizes balancing timber production with a wide array of other benefits, reflecting the traditional holistic approach to land use. This approach ensures that timber is not pursued in isolation but as a component of a resilient and productive system. 

Food Security: Agroforestry systems inherently enhance food security by diversifying agricultural production and providing a steady supply of nutritious foods, including fruits, nuts, vegetables, and animal products. This diversity helps communities withstand environmental stressors and market fluctuations, reducing reliance on food imports. For instance, restoring fallow agricultural lands to agroforestry could significantly boost nearshore food production in Hawaiʻi. 

Soil Health and Erosion Control: Trees within agroforestry systems play a vital role in improving soil health. Their deep, extensive root systems stabilize soils, reducing erosion and landslides, particularly in vulnerable coastal areas or on steep slopes. The organic matter from decomposing leaf litter and root systems enriches soil fertility, improves water-holding capacity, and encourages beneficial microbial activity. This contrasts sharply with monoculture practices that can deplete soil nutrients. 

Biodiversity Conservation: Agroforestry systems, by integrating multiple plant species and creating complex, multi-layered habitats, significantly increase biodiversity compared to conventional agricultural systems. This enhanced biodiversity supports a wider variety of birds, insects, and other animals, which in turn helps control pests naturally. The integration of native tree species and the mimicry of natural forests contribute to more resilient and self-sustaining ecosystems.

Climate Resilience: Agroforestry systems are powerful tools for climate change mitigation and adaptation. They capture and store atmospheric carbon through deep root systems and organic matter accumulation, effectively reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The integration of trees and crops creates microclimates that are more resilient to climate impacts, with tree shade regulating soil temperatures, reducing evaporation, and protecting crops from extreme weather events like droughts and heavy rainfall.

Traditional Knowledge Integration: A crucial aspect of integrated management is the incorporation of traditional knowledge. Pacific Island agroforestry systems have evolved over millennia, embodying detailed environmental knowledge based on long-term observation of seasons, cyclones, soils, and microclimates. While modern development has sometimes led to the abandonment of these systems, there is a growing recognition of the value of "wisdom of the elders". Effective integrated management requires bridging indigenous knowledge systems with structured scientific knowledge, fostering a collaborative learning environment between farmers and technical experts. This integration ensures that management practices are not only scientifically sound but also culturally appropriate and locally adapted. 

Economic and Market Dynamics

Economic Viability and Returns

Investing in farm forestry and timber production within agroforestry systems in the Pacific Islands represents a long-term commitment of land, labor, and resources. While annual agricultural crops typically offer quicker returns, agroforestry systems, particularly during their establishment phase, may yield lower immediate income. However, the economic return from later harvests of trees, especially in terms of net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and benefit-cost ratio (B/C), has been found to be significantly higher than from seasonal agricultural systems in many locations. This highlights a trade-off between short-term agricultural income and longer-term economic gains from planting trees on farmland.

Multi-species agroforestry offers an impressive range of economic benefits beyond direct timber sales. These include agricultural diversification, increased self-sufficiency in timber and fuelwood, reduced need for food imports, and poverty reduction. For instance, community-led agroforestry projects have demonstrated significant livelihood enhancement, with women's clubs earning substantial income from seedling sales and smallholder farming, directly improving family finances and contributing to community investments. The ability to plant short-term crops alongside trees allows for immediate income generation, addressing the critical need for earlier returns that can make long-term forestry investments more appealing to smallholders.

Despite these potential benefits, the adoption of agroforestry is influenced by various factors beyond financial returns, such as household preferences, resource endowments, market incentives, biophysical conditions, and the inherent risks and uncertainties surrounding production. Studies suggest that diversified systems like agroforestry may reduce overall farm risk, but more information is needed to fully evaluate these risk tradeoffs. High initial investment and long maturity periods, coupled with risks like theft or cyclone damage, can make forestry less appealing to smallholders with immediate cash needs. Addressing these security issues and planning for earlier returns through integrated agricultural crops are crucial for improving the profitability and attractiveness of timber-focused agroforestry.   

Market Access and Value Chains

Market access and the development of robust value chains are critical for optimizing the commercial potential of timber from Pacific Island agroforestry systems. While some larger island countries like Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Fiji benefit significantly from whole log exports, Vanuatu has maximized benefits by processing timber for export. This suggests that value-adding processing can provide major economic benefits, although it requires an enabling environment.

Challenges in market access and high transport costs can hinder the commercial viability of timber plantings, as seen with Pinus caribaea in Vanuatu. To overcome these barriers and enhance commercial returns, landowners need to develop a clear understanding of the local timber marketplace and its potential. Optimizing commercial potential involves sound planning, establishment, management, and harvesting techniques. The closer the landholder is to the mill, the better the potential for commercial returns.

Certification schemes can also play a vital role in improving market access for fast-growing, specialty, small wood plantations by addressing environmental and sustainability issues. Furthermore, developing value chains for agroforestry products and connecting farmers to consumers and markets are essential to overcome existing barriers that prevent farmers from fully benefiting from these practices. For instance, a project in Fiji demonstrated that community nurseries could produce seedlings for catchment rehabilitation while simultaneously offering new livelihood options through sales of produce at local markets, building strong community ownership and enhancing livelihoods.   

Regional and Global Market Context

The Pacific Island countries exhibit varied roles in the regional and global timber market. Richly forested nations of Melanesia, including Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji, and Vanuatu, are significant log/timber exporters, with the forestry sector contributing substantially to their national economies. Papua New Guinea, for example, is the world's second-largest exporter of tropical logs, with log exports dominating its forest products export revenues. Vanuatu maximizes benefits by processing timber for export, while Fiji also gains economic advantages from domestically sourced inputs and employment in its timber industry. 

However, this high rate of exploitation in larger forested countries has raised concerns that foreign exchange earnings from timber may diminish significantly. Medium-forested countries like New Caledonia, Samoa, Tonga, French Polynesia, and Niue are net timber importers. The temptation of quick returns to landowners and governments, coupled with transfer pricing by logging companies and poorly resourced forestry management units, has often led to unsustainable harvest and destructive logging practices. Forest regeneration is generally weak, indicating that current harvesting levels often exceed sustainable capacities.

Despite these challenges, opportunities exist for economic growth from the forest sector to maintain services and benefits to the people of the Pacific. These opportunities rely on establishing an enabling environment that promotes sustainable forestry and agroforestry systems. The global demand for timber and other forest products is projected to grow rapidly, driven by increasing world population, urbanization, and prosperity, which presents a market opportunity for Pacific Island timber. However, accessing niche markets for specialty, fast-growing small wood plantations may require certification schemes to address environmental and sustainability issues.

Environmental Benefits and Climate Resilience

Soil Health and Erosion Control

Agroforestry systems in the Pacific Islands offer significant environmental benefits, particularly in enhancing soil health and controlling erosion. The deep, extensive root systems of trees within these systems play a crucial role in stabilizing soils, thereby reducing the risk of erosion and landslides, especially in areas with steep slopes or vulnerable coastlines. This is a critical advantage over conventional agriculture, which can lead to elevated erosion risks on fallow or unmanaged lands.

Furthermore, the organic matter contributed by decomposing leaf litter and root systems from the trees significantly improves soil fertility, water-holding capacity, and overall soil health. The shade provided by trees also helps to regulate soil temperatures and retain water in the soil for longer periods, fostering more stable populations of beneficial microbes essential for soil productivity. Practices like alley cropping, where crops are grown between rows of trees, actively reduce soil erosion by intercepting rainfall and slowing water flow, preserving soil integrity and long-term agricultural productivity. Unlike monoculture techniques that can deplete soil nutrients and degrade soil quality, agroforestry has the capacity to restore and maintain the soil's productive capabilities over time. 

Biodiversity Conservation

Agroforestry systems in the Pacific Islands contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation by integrating the cultivation of trees and crops with the preservation of natural habitats. By creating diverse, multi-layered systems that mimic natural forests, agroforestry helps restore degraded lands and provides vital habitats for a wide range of species. This increased habitat supports a wider variety of birds, bats, insects, and other organisms, which in turn play a crucial role in natural pest control, reducing the reliance on chemical interventions. 

The integration of native tree species and the promotion of biodiversity within these systems create more resilient and self-sustaining ecosystems, better equipped to withstand climate change and other environmental stressors. For example, the species diversity and structure of tree-based multistory gardens are similar to native forests, protecting watersheds and water quality. This approach supports not only the ecological health of the land but also the continued availability of fish, shellfish, crabs, birds, and other animals that depend on these forests and trees.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

Agroforestry systems are powerful tools for both climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Pacific Islands. They are designed to capture and store atmospheric carbon, making them a significant asset in the effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The deep, extensive root systems of trees and the organic matter they contribute to the soil help to sequester and store substantial amounts of carbon. 

Beyond carbon sequestration, the integration of trees and crops creates microclimates that are more resilient to the impacts of climate change. The shade provided by trees helps regulate soil temperatures, reduces evaporation, and protects crops from extreme weather events such as droughts and heavy rainfall. Windbreaks, as a specific agroforestry intervention, protect other agricultural pursuits from physical damage from extreme events and improve water retention and soil health. This makes agroforestry inherently more resilient to climate shocks compared to monoculture farming, which often struggles with climate change impacts on food production and quality.

Furthermore, agroforestry complements traditional reforestation efforts by reducing the pressure on remaining natural forests, thereby contributing to broader environmental services and enhancing the overall climate resilience of the region. The ability of these tree-based systems to maintain high standing biomass and total carbon storage per unit area makes them more resistant and resilient to environmental changes than annual cropping systems. 

Socio-Cultural Dimensions

Traditional Knowledge Integration

Traditional knowledge forms the bedrock of Pacific Island agroforestry, having evolved into sustainable, diverse, and productive land-use systems over centuries. This knowledge is based on long-term observation, providing detailed understanding of the environment, including recurrent events like seasons and unpredictable ones like cyclones, and incorporating spatial variations in soils and microclimates into land-use patterns. The scientific world is actively seeking to understand and integrate this immense body of traditional knowledge. 

However, a concerning trend has emerged where Pacific Island farmers are abandoning these traditional agroforestry systems in favor of intensified agriculture for cash crop production, often leading to soil erosion and fertility deficiencies. This shift raises questions about the ease with which centuries-old sustainable practices can disappear. While traditional practices are often environmentally sound, their original motivation may not have been solely conservation; for instance, Tongan farmers developed impressive agroforestry systems to minimize workloads. This highlights that if modern tools or economic incentives offer perceived easier or more profitable alternatives, traditional practices may be abandoned. 

The distinction between indigenous knowledge systems, which tend to explain results of actions within unique local contexts, and structured scientific knowledge systems, which rely on fixed, replicable rules, presents a communication challenge. To successfully incorporate new agroforestry techniques, farmers will need to learn some scientific principles, and conversely, scientific personnel must understand indigenous knowledge systems. This mutual learning is essential for effective agricultural extension and for rooting new practices in a knowledge system that supports and justifies their long-term maintenance. 

Customary Land Tenure Systems

Customary land tenure is a pervasive feature across most Pacific Island countries, with a significant majority (often 80-90%) of land held according to traditional customs of indigenous people. This land is primarily owned collectively or jointly by families, although individual ownership is recognized and practiced in some nations. These systems have historically provided social stability, security, and ensured equitable distribution of resources.

However, customary land tenure presents both challenges and opportunities for forestry and timber production. The complexity and uncertainty arising from multiple legal systems and fluid customary rules can be a significant obstacle for new land uses or resource development. For some, customary land tenure is seen as an impediment to economic development, as communal ownership can inhibit mortgage borrowing, prevent market development, and lead to under-utilization of resources. The lack of formal records for customary land rights and difficulties in determining who can represent communal interests further complicate dealings. The commercial value of timber can also lead to disputes and corruption, with traditional structures sometimes manipulated for individual wealth accumulation rather than equitable benefit distribution.

Despite these challenges, legal pluralism offers opportunities for flexibility and adaptation. Hybrid legal forms can emerge, drawing on both customary and introduced laws. Legislation can recognize and build on traditional features, such as the Incorporated Land Group in Papua New Guinea, allowing customary land groups to register as corporations for economic engagement. Lease-lease-back schemes can enable customary owners to acquire formal leasehold titles for mortgage finance. Increased security of title through lease registration can provide unchallengeable rights, which some view as advantageous over customary tenure. These adaptations demonstrate a conscious effort to adjust kinship underpinnings of customary tenure to accommodate changes in land use, such as the shift to long-term crops like timber, which require long-term security of tenure for a limited number of people.

Community Involvement and Livelihoods

Forests and trees play significant social, cultural, economic, and environmental roles in the lives of Pacific Islanders. Agroforestry and tree crops contribute directly to food, medicine, construction materials, and other essential products, underpinning the well-being of communities. Urban agroforestry, particularly home gardens, is a well-established practice that significantly increases the "real incomes" of urban gardeners, especially low-income families, by providing fresh produce and fuelwood, thereby reducing reliance on costly imports. 

Community involvement is crucial for the success and sustainability of agroforestry projects. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has supported initiatives that foster increased resilience, productivity, community engagement, and livelihood opportunities. A compelling example is the Nadroumai Women's Club (NWC) in Fiji, which was motivated by concerns over soil erosion and river pollution. Through external support, the NWC established a village nursery, rehabilitating the Nadroumai catchment and significantly increasing profits from seedling sales. Beyond seedlings, the women engaged in smallholder farming, earning substantial weekly income from selling fruits and vegetables, which profoundly improved their lives.

This project demonstrates how community-led initiatives, with appropriate training and support, can generate immediate income by integrating short-term crops with long-term tree planting, making agroforestry financially attractive. The NWC's success not only enhanced individual livelihoods but also fostered strong community ownership, leading to investments in village infrastructure and challenging traditional gender norms by empowering women in land-based enterprises. The project also provided a vital lifeline during the COVID-19 pandemic, reinforcing the traditional understanding that land provides sustenance when other systems fail. This illustrates that community engagement, particularly when it addresses immediate needs and builds local capacity, is fundamental to the successful implementation and long-term sustainability of timber agroforestry and broader land management efforts.

Challenges and Opportunities

Key Challenges

Despite the immense potential of agroforestry for timber production in the Pacific Islands, several significant challenges impede its widespread and sustainable development.

Information Gaps and Understanding: A fundamental challenge lies in the insufficient understanding of the internal dynamics of agroforestry systems. To provide effective technical assistance, more comprehensive data is needed on the ecophysiological dynamics of structure, function, and productivity, as well as the interactions between agroforestry plantings and the surrounding environment. This includes optimizing productivity benefits, tailoring practices to diverse environments, and identifying beneficial tree and crop combinations.

Climate Change Vulnerability: Pacific Island countries are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and changing rainfall patterns. While agroforestry offers adaptation and mitigation benefits, information is critical to understanding and managing these impacts, such as predicting effects on crop and livestock yields under future climate scenarios and refining models for tree species suitability.

Economic Viability and Risk: Current studies suggest that agroforestry may not be profitable on prime agricultural lands compared to annual cropping, though it can be on marginal lands, especially with incentives. The long juvenile (non-productive) period of trees compared to annual crops means lower initial income, creating a trade-off between short-term agricultural income and longer-term gains. High initial investment, long maturity periods, and risks like theft or cyclone damage make forestry less appealing to smallholders with immediate needs.

Market Access and Value Chains: Poor market access and high transport costs can significantly undermine the commercial viability of timber plantings. There are also challenges in developing value chains for agroforestry products and connecting farmers to consumers and markets. The prevalence of foreign logging companies focusing on short-term profits, often at the expense of sustainable harvesting and equitable benefit sharing, further complicates market dynamics.

Policy and Governance Frameworks: Failure to effectively implement policy and enforce existing legal requirements remains a major issue in the forestry sector. Decision-making is often fragmented, inconsistent, and uncoordinated, leading to issues like illegal, under-reported, and unreported logging. Institutional support for intercropping or other agroforestry activities in timber plantations has historically been limited, with a focus on monocultural approaches. Furthermore, agroforestry's responsibility is not typically assigned to a single government department, suggesting a need for new forms of governance.

Land Tenure Issues: The complex and often informal nature of customary land tenure systems can create uncertainty regarding land rights, hindering investment and the adoption of long-term forestry practices. While customary land provides social security, modern developmental pressures necessitate reforms to accommodate market economies without leading to dispossession.

Loss of Traditional Knowledge: There is a concerning trend of Pacific Island farmers abandoning traditional agroforestry systems for intensified cash crop production, leading to a loss of indigenous knowledge regarding sustainable land management.

Opportunities for Sustainable Timber Agroforestry

Despite the challenges, numerous opportunities exist to foster sustainable timber agroforestry in the Pacific Islands, leveraging both traditional wisdom and modern advancements.

Revitalizing Indigenous-Informed Agroforestry: The historical sustainability of traditional multi-strata agroforests serves as a powerful model for future development. There is a growing recognition of the value of "wisdom of the elders" and a movement towards supporting indigenous polycultural agroforestry systems. Restoring fallow and unmanaged agricultural lands to ʻŌiwi (Native Hawaiian) and other place-based agroforestry systems offers direct benefits for local food production, biodiversity, and cultural connection. This approach can significantly increase sediment retention and boost nearshore food production. 

Enhancing Climate Resilience: Agroforestry is a powerful tool for climate change mitigation and adaptation. It sequesters carbon, regulates microclimates, and enhances the resilience of endemic ecosystems against rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and changing rainfall patterns. Promoting climate-resilient systems and advancing afforestation are key initiatives within regional strategies like 'Growing the Pacific 2050'.

Economic Diversification and Value-Adding: Agroforestry offers opportunities to diversify agricultural production and enhance food security, providing a more diverse array of food sources and improving soil fertility. Beyond subsistence, there is potential for high-value commercial products from diverse agroforestry systems, including unique markets for specialty crops like tea or noni. Value-adding processing of timber for export, as seen in Vanuatu, can significantly increase economic benefits. Fast-growing, specialty wood plantations offer an economic opportunity, especially with access to niche markets and certification schemes. 

Strengthening Policy and Governance: Regional strategies, such as the Pacific Agriculture and Forestry Strategy for 2024-2050, outline a vision for sustainable, resilient, and inclusive agriculture and forestry systems. This strategy emphasizes integrated, healthy, regenerative, secure, and enabled pathways, promoting agroecological practices and multi-stakeholder platforms for governance. The Pacific Islands Framework for Nature Conservation and Protected Areas 2021-2025 provides broad strategic guidance for conservation, emphasizing community rights, Pacific perspectives, and good governance. Addressing land tenure issues and establishing enforceable agreements with smallholders are crucial for enabling sustainable forestry and attracting investment.

Community Empowerment and Livelihood Enhancement: Community and farm forestry are vital for improving the current situation where local communities often depend on foreign logging companies. Projects that support community capacity building and provide immediate income alongside long-term tree benefits, such as the Nadroumai Women's Club in Fiji, demonstrate successful models for livelihood enhancement and community ownership. Empowering youth and integrating indigenous knowledge can drive innovation and transform agrifood systems, leaving no one behind.

Research and Extension Support: Organizations like ACIAR, FAO, and the Pacific Community (SPC) are committed to supporting Pacific Island Countries in tackling climate change, food insecurity, and environmental degradation. This includes supporting research into climate-resilient coffee agroforestry systems, developing nut industries, and improving soil and land management. There is a recognized need for better documentation of tribal and island agroforestry practices and evaluations of their resiliency. Universities and programs like the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme are also working to document local knowledge and provide technical advice and training. 

Conclusions and Recommendations

The analysis of Pacific Island agroforestry systems for timber production reveals a complex interplay of historical practices, ecological imperatives, economic drivers, and socio-cultural dynamics. Traditional agroforestry, characterized by its multi-strata, multipurpose nature, stands as a testament to centuries of sustainable land management, providing timber alongside essential food, medicine, and environmental services. However, colonial influences and the push for monocultural, export-oriented timber production have disrupted these integrated systems, leading to land degradation and a disconnect between policy and local realities.

Current timber production efforts often face challenges related to unsustainable harvesting rates, weak market access, high transport costs, and the invasiveness of some introduced species. The economic viability for smallholders is frequently hampered by long maturity periods and the lack of immediate financial returns, despite the promise of higher long-term profitability. Furthermore, the complex customary land tenure systems, while providing social security, can pose obstacles to large-scale investment and formal land dealings.

To foster a truly sustainable and beneficial timber agroforestry sector in the Pacific Islands, the following recommendations are put forth:

• Prioritize Indigenous-Informed Agroforestry Models: Development initiatives should pivot from imposing external, monocultural timber production models towards actively revitalizing and scaling up traditional, multi-strata agroforestry systems. This involves integrating Indigenous knowledge with modern scientific approaches to ensure ecological balance, cultural relevance, and diversified benefits beyond timber.

• Promote Multipurpose Species and Systems: Focus on timber species and agroforestry practices that offer multiple benefits (e.g., food, fodder, soil improvement, climate resilience) alongside timber. This approach enhances overall farm resilience, provides earlier returns to smallholders, and aligns with the holistic resource optimization inherent in traditional Pacific Island land use.

• Invest in Value-Adding and Local Processing: Encourage and support local processing of timber to create value-added products for both domestic and export markets. This can significantly increase economic returns for island nations and local communities, reducing reliance on raw log exports and mitigating the negative impacts of unsustainable logging practices.

• Strengthen Policy and Governance for Sustainability: Develop and enforce robust policy frameworks that promote sustainable timber harvesting, combat illegal logging, and ensure equitable benefit sharing with landowning communities. This requires cross-sectoral collaboration between agriculture and forestry ministries and the development of clear land tenure arrangements that support long-term agroforestry investments while respecting customary rights.

• Address Economic Barriers for Smallholders: Implement financial mechanisms, such as targeted subsidies, micro-financing, or incentive programs, that help offset the high initial investment and long maturity periods associated with timber trees. Strategies that integrate short-term cash crops with long-term timber species should be prioritized to provide immediate income streams for farmers.

• Enhance Research, Extension, and Capacity Building: Increase investment in research tailored to Pacific Island contexts, focusing on native timber species, their growth characteristics, and their integration into diverse agroforestry systems. Strengthen extension services to effectively bridge scientific knowledge with traditional practices, providing practical training and technical assistance to farmers and communities.

• Foster Community-Led Initiatives: Support and empower community-based organizations and women's groups in planning, implementing, and managing agroforestry projects. These initiatives build local capacity, promote community ownership, and ensure that development efforts are responsive to local needs and priorities.

• Prioritize Climate-Resilient Species and Practices: Given the acute vulnerability of Pacific Islands to climate change, emphasize the selection of timber species and agroforestry designs that enhance climate resilience, including drought tolerance, wind resistance, and carbon sequestration capabilities.